The Cananga odorata is valued for the perfume extracted from its flowers, called ylang-ylang (a name also sometimes used for the tree itself), which is an essential oil used in aromatherapy. The oil from ylang-ylang is widely used in perfumery for oriental or floral themed perfumes (such as Chanel No 5).

               

Cardamom seeds

Cardamom is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. They are recognised by their small seed pods: triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin papery outer shell and small black seeds; Elettaria pods are light green and smaller, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown. Cardamom is the world's third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla and saffron.  It is said to calm a crying baby as it makes them sleepy.

              

nutmeg

 

Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, an evergreen tree. Nutmeg is the seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about 0.8 to 1.2 in long 0.6 to 0.7 in wide, and weighing between 0.2 and 0.4 oz dried, while mace is the dried "lacy" reddish covering. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, and the trees reach full production after twenty years. Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form.  Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavor. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavoring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. For me, I use it in my Christmas gingerbread cookies and as a topping on eggnog.

 

                  

 

Boy opening coconut

Wrapping up our journey through the plantation was the skittering up a very tall coconut tree by another local boy was the last of our exploration. He was amazing taking less two minutes to climb the tree. The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family) and was at least 50 to 60' high. He was back in a flash with coconuts for us all. With his broad knife wracked at each coconut enabling us to have a refreshing drink and a taste of the meat.

Coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their large quantity of "water", and when immature, they are known as tender-nuts or jelly-nuts and may be harvested for their potable coconut water. When mature, they still contain some water and can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel.

 

 

 

 

We concluded our tour with a tasting of many very fresh, very ripe fruits and teas. It was an amazing experience to see the spices growing, learn the production process and the many uses they have. Now when I next visit a Spice Market, be in Turkey, Hungary, Tunisia, Austria or anywhere in the world, I will be awed by the work that went into bring those spices into our lives.

 

 

 

 

In December I visited the beautiful, fertile islands of Zanzibar, a centuries old trading center in the Indian Ocean, 21 miles off the East African coast. These islands are known for producing nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves and black pepper. Ancient pottery implies trade routes with Zanzibar as far back as the time of the ancient Assyrians and traders from the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf region of modern-day Iran, and west India probably visited Zanzibar as early as the 1st century. They used the monsoon winds to sail across the Indian Ocean to land at the sheltered harbor located on the present day harbor of Zanzibar City or Stonetown.

A Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD mentioned the island of Menuthias which is probably Unguja, the principal island. From the seventh century wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar. Vasco da Gama's visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. Zanzibar then remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries.

Control of Zanzibar eventually came into the hands of the British Empire; part of the political impetus for this was the 19th century movement for the abolition of the slave trade (in which David Livingston played a big role).  African slaves were highly sought after for their strength and Zanzibar was the centre of this extremely profitable trade. In 1963 the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. In April 1964, the republic merged with mainland Tanganyika. This United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was soon renamed, blending the two names, as the United Republic of Tanzania, within which Zanzibar remains a semi-autonomous region.

The day of our visit we traveled on gradually deteriorating roads into the countryside where signs for plantations and Department of the Interior research were plentiful. We passed thick vegetation including tall coconut and brilliant flame trees. Our local guide, Amour, spoke good English and was able to answer all questions easily.

Cinnamon bark

The first plant we encountered was the ubiquitous, spicy-smelling cinnamon, obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. The bark is ground for most common usage.

 

Then, we encountered a bushy tree with star fruit or carambola. The fruit has distinctive ridges running down its sides (usually five but can sometimes vary); in cross-section, it resembles a star, hence its name. The entire fruit is edible and is usually eaten out of hand as we did.

 

 

 

 

Turmeric

Plentiful wereTurmeric or tumeric (Curcuma longa are the tubers of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. Instantly identifiable by their smell we passed a small portion around our group.  Although typically used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric is also used fresh, like ginger. It has numerous uses in East Asian recipes. Extensively used in many vegetable and meat dishes for its color; it is also used for its supposed value in traditional medicine. It is widely used as a yellow dye in many dishes and as a poor yellow color in cloth and Amour stated that tumeric also is thought to have antibacterial qualities though my research said that this has yet to be proven.

 

 

 

 

 Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. When fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 0.20 in diameter, dark red, and contains a single seed (peppercorn). Peppercorns, and the ground pepper derived from them, may be described as black pepper (cooked and dried unripe fruit), green pepper (dried unripe fruit) and white pepper (ripe fruit seeds.

 

 

 

                                                        

 

When you spot what looks like red grapes, you have found cloves. Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan,SriLanka, and Tanzania. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves and sanguine flowers grouped in terminal clusters. The flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1.5–2.0 cm long. Cloves can be used as an ant repellent and supposedly as a pain-killer for dental emergencies.

Cymbopogon, better known as lemongrass is a genus of Asian, African, Australian, and tropical island plants which contains many species.  Some, (particularly Cymbopogon citratus) are commonly cultivated as culinary and medicinal herbs because of their scent, resembling that of lemons (Citrus limon). Lemongrass is widely used as a culinary herb in Asian cuisines and also as medicinal herb in India. It has a subtle citrus flavor and can be dried and powdered, or used fresh. It is commonly used in teas, soups, and curries. It is also suitable for use with poultry, fish, beef, and seafood. It is often used as a tea in African countries such as Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Latin American countries such as Mexico. Lemongrass oil is used as a pesticide and a preservative.  The plantation was selling lemon grass hand lotion and soap which smelled mighty fine.

 

 

The redlipstick was one of the more unusual plants we saw. The Aeschynanthus lipstick vine has pointy, waxy leaves and blooms with bright clusters of flowers. Vivid red blossoms emerge from a dark maroon bud reminiscent of a tube of lipstick. An assistant told us it was good for dying hair. It is supposedly an easy houseplant to maintain.

 

 

 

 

 More of these fascinating plants will be featured in Part II.

 

 

 

We often think of plants in much the same way we think of rocks: dumb things that don't move. Okay, plants do grow, but we tend to consider them as a static part of the environment. I think that is in part due to their alien nature that we don't form a natural affection for plants in the way we do with dogs or koalas. Other than some shared biochemistry, plants are very different than animals.

Or are they?

We've known for a long time that plants can respond to direct stimuli, have circadian rhythms, and can respond to cues from their neighbors—chemical warnings of pest interactions on neighboring plants, for example.

A recent study in Australia has shown that plants, at least garden peas, can also learn by association. As reported by the researchers, pea seedlings learned that a gentle breeze was associated with light coming from a particular direction. The plants would only learn, however, when the training stimulus happened during times that the plant perceived as "day". In other words, when it was "awake." Or whatever passes as being awake for plants. 

This doesn't mean plants will be learning their ABCs anytime soon, but it does have some interesting implications for evolutionary biology. I'm interested to see if other plant species respond similarly.

You can read the paper online here: http://www.nature.com/articles/srep38427?WT.mc_id=FBK_SREP_1612_PLANTLEARNING_OA 

Gagliano, M. et al. Learning by Association in Plants. Sci. Rep. 6, 38427; doi: 10.1038/srep38427 (2016).

Mahonias belong to a genus of shrubs which are closely related to barberries (Berberis).  They originate from many different areas of the world, including the Pacific Northwest and the Southwestern deserts of the United States, while many with the most striking forms come from China and Japan.

They are mainly characterized by evergreen, spiny pinnate leaves which are leathery in texture and sometimes glossy so that they resemble holly.  They are valued for their yellow flowers which are produced in either rounded clusters or elongated spikes in late winter and early spring when little else is blooming, and these are beloved by honey bees, so provide some welcome early food whenever the sun is warm enough for bees to fly.  

The flowers are followed by berry-like fruits, either blue or black in color, and often covered in a powdery bloom.  These are considered edible, although they are somewhat bitter and should not be eaten in large quantities since that can cause a drop in blood pressure, vomiting and a lowered heart rate.  They are also said to make a flavorful jelly, although I have never tried this personally.

In the garden they can cope with a variety of different exposures depending on the species, but most prefer shade, or shelter from hot afternoon sun in desert areas.  Many will even grow against a north facing wall.  Heights also vary by species, some being creeping while others can grow to 12 ft., although that height would only be reached under optimum conditions.  Water requirements also vary and I have found that although many originally come from the Pacific Northwest they are surprisingly tolerant of dry shade. In general the Mahonias are considered easy to grow although they may take a little while to settle in after transplanting.

For many years I avoided growing these plants because, although the leaves were quite handsome, the actual plants that I saw in peoples' gardens tended to look rangy but I have since discovered that with occasional, judicious pruning they can  be quite handsome, and since they do grow in the high desert, and are generally ignored by deer they have much to recommend them.

Last year I planted a variety of Mahonia x media  'Lionel Fortescue' on a north facing wall, and not only did it come through the winter with flying colors, flowering early as promised in mid February, but it also coped with brief blasts of afternoon sun coming from the west without any damage to its leaves.  It has a strong upright habit which promises to be a striking focal point in the border.

The more commonly planted Mahonia aquifolium, or Oregon Grape is generally lower growing and spreads by underground stems.  It may grow to 5ft. high under ideal conditions, but can also be used as a ground cover if tall stems are removed at the base.  Often new growth is reddish in color.

The desert native, Mahonia fremontii is an upright, multi-stemmed  shrub with very spiny gray-green leaves and short spikes of yellow flowers in late spring.  It is generally considered hardy in USDA Zone 7, although it comes from the Southwestern desert.  It requires very little water.

Another popular hybrid is Mahonia "Skylark" which grows to 5ft tall, has reddish new leaves which then take on a purple hue in winter.  The berries are dark purple.  It requires little water.

There are many other varieties of Mahonia, so whether you are looking for a low-growing foundation shrub for an informal woodland setting, or a bold focal point, a scan of specialist nurseries should provide you with a plant to fit your needs.

More information at:

sonomamg.ucanr.edu/Garden_Sense_Master/GardenSense_Plants/?uid=93&ds...

oregonstate.edu/dept/ldplants/mapin.htm