- Author: Christeen Ferree
As spring unfolds its vibrant tapestry, so too emerges an array of garden pests threatening to disrupt the harmony. From insidious weeds to pesky insects and lurking diseases, our green sanctuaries face a seasonal onslaught. Lets look at three of the challenges you might find in the garden this season.
Aphids are small plant-sucking, soft-bodied true bugs. They come in many sizes, shapes and colors (green, black, yellow, brown, and red) and are a common insect in the garden. They attack many vegetable plants, fruit trees, and ornamental vegetation. They are commonly found on roses in the spring. You can usually determine whether aphids are infesting your plants by noting curled, distorted leaves with sticky honeydew on them. Aphids excrete copious amounts of honeydew, rich in sugars. Ants will also be noticeable because they feed on the sweet honeydew. Honeydew encourages growth of sooty mold fungus – a black film on leaf surfaces. Aside from the damage aphids can do to a plant's appearance, aphids can transmit viruses from infected plants to healthy plants. In fact, aphids are the most important vectors of plant viruses, which they carry on their stylets or accumulate in their guts and transmit via their piercing and sucking mouthparts when they feed on young leaves and stems. If the infestation of aphids is low to moderate, they can usually be tolerated. Control aphids by hosing them off with jets of water or use soap solution or oil sprays. Naturally occurring predators such as lady beetles (adults and larvae), soldier beetles, lacewing, and syrphid fly larvae and parasitic wasps, also serve to control aphids. However, the ability of predators and parasites to control them can be thwarted by ants protecting their food source. Therefore, ants need to be excluded from aphid colonies by applying sticky material such as Tanglefoot to the bases of infested plants. Click here to view aphid-eating insects in action. For additional information see: IPM Aphid Pest Note
- Author: Kathy Ikeda, Master Gardener
As I pondered a topic for this article, brilliant rays of sunlight penetrated the dark rain clouds, bathing my garden with a beautiful rosy glow. What perfect and timely inspiration.
With respect to gardens, our sun is far more than a “mass of incandescent gas” (a phrase borrowed from the song “Why Does the Sun Shine?” by the group They Might Be Giants); the radiation from our nearby star literally powers the engine of plant growth. Sunlight is the fuel that allows plants to convert water and carbon dioxide gas into glucose—a type of sugar—and oxygen—a vital component of the air we breathe. It's a miracle of nature.
Sunlight and plant health are closely intertwined, so here are some things to consider during your spring planting and gardening chores.
All plants can be categorized by the amount of sun exposure they prefer: full sun (6 hours or more a day), part sun/shade, or full shade (1 hour or less a day). These distinctions are a standard part of nursery plant tags and reputable gardening references such as the Sunset Western Garden Book, for good reason. One of the most important factors for a plant's health is sun exposure.
If a sun-loving plant is planted in an area with too much shade, it won't get the light it needs for optimal health and growth. Conversely, a shade-loving plant will be severely stressed or killed if planted in an area where it receives too much sun.
Not all sunlight is created equal. Morning sunlight is less intense than the hot afternoon sun, particularly during our scorching summers. A plant that receives only two hours of full sun early in the day lives in a far different and milder microclimate than a plant that's exposed to full, intense sunlight at midday or during early afternoon. Sunlight is essential for plant's survival, but there can sometimes be too much of a good thing.
The angle of the sun and the length of daylight hours change constantly throughout the year, and this is an important consideration in garden planning. Yearly changes in sunlight—direct or indirect, long or short periods—can have major consequences for plant health. For example, a spot in the garden that is fully shaded during the winter could get full afternoon sun for many hours in the summertime, and only a plant with wide-ranging tolerances for sun exposure and heat/cold will thrive in such a location. Make sure you understand the year-round conditions—including seasonal sun exposure—of any planting site, and then choose the plants for that location appropriately.
Heat and light are two distinct components of sunlight, and too little or too much of either can harm plants. Symptoms of inadequate sunlight include weak, spindly growth and pale leaves. Some types of damage caused by excessive sun include bud drop, leaf scorch, leaf tip burn, sunburn, sunscald, and wilting. Sunscald is one of the most serious injuries; with too much sun exposure, the bark splits, cracks, and peels away to expose the living plant tissue underneath, which then becomes susceptible to diseases, insect damage, and even death.
Outdoor plants aren't the only ones affected by sun exposure; houseplants are, too. Relatively few plants are naturally adapted to extreme low-light conditions. A typical houseplant placed in a dark corner will eventually start to appear sickly, and might develop long, straggly growth that stretches toward the light from the nearest window. On the other hand, plants placed near a south- or west-facing window might sustain damage from too much heat or direct sunlight exposure in the late spring and summer. Window materials are also a consideration for houseplants. Older windows without UV-blocking coatings allow a wider spectrum of light (and heat) into a home, a condition which more closely mimics outdoor sunlight. On the other hand, modern windows block ultraviolet wavelengths, and plants might need to be grown under a full-spectrum grow light in order to thrive indoors.
The sun is also is factor to consider when pruning plants. If you open up the structure of a tree or shrub by removing many branches, the trunk and remaining branches or stems might suddenly be exposed to strong sunlight since they're no longer shaded by foliage. Monitor the plant to see where the sun hits remaining wood, then prevent sunscald by painting those surfaces with a temporary protective solution made by mixing equal parts water and white, water- based, flat, interior latex paint. Paint only the parts exposed to strong sunlight—upper and southwest-facing surfaces—not those that are shaded. (Do not use “sealing compounds” or tar on branches or pruning cuts; they do more harm than good. Simply prune plants on a dry day with clean tools, and allow the cut surfaces to heal naturally.)
Be sure to keep the sun in mind when planning a vegetable garden or home orchard. Vegetables need at least eight hours of sunlight per day for optimal growth and crop production. Fruit, nut, and citrus trees need six to eight or more hours of sunlight a day in order to be at their healthiest and most productive, and heat is the most important factor in the ripening of citrus fruit.
Some cautionary notes about citrus: the bark of lemon trees is especially susceptible to sunburn, as are the fruits and leaves of Red Ruby grapefruit. These citrus varieties and newly planted citrus trees appreciate some sun protection; loosely wrap their trunks with newspaper during times of peak sun exposure, or use the diluted paint mixture described above to coat the sun-exposed portions of their trunks and main branches.
Sun exposure should also influence your choice of garden mulch. Inorganic mulches such as stone and gravel can be appropriate in shady locations or when placed around heat-loving or desert-type plants. However, rock retains far more heat than organic mulches such as bark, wood chips, or leaf litter. Rock mulch absorbs heat from sunlight during the day and radiates it back to its surroundings throughout the night; this can literally bake plants, scorching their leaves, damaging their bark, and cooking their delicate surface roots. Choose garden mulches wisely, and always keep them several inches away from tree trunks and the bases of shrubs.
May sunshine brighten your days, and may you learn how to effectively manage it in your garden!
- Author: Jamie Davis, Master Gardener
Yep, we're talking about vegetables and fruits and the joy of homegrown food. Read on about vegetarian eating, getting the kids on the veggie train, a bit of food history, and recipes—some tried and deemed true by kids themselves.
Imagine a little guy, sitting on a small Adirondack chair and smiling with pride at the head of broccoli in his hands. He was involved in the process of growing the broccoli, from digging the garden plot to planting, tending, and harvesting that same broccoli. Now it's easier to offer vegetables for any meal/snack, even breakfast.
It's fun to join that kid for a walk through the garden patch to sample the products. There's nothing like the taste of snacky green beans right off the vine, or oranges and peaches plucked from the tree. Lemons can be turned into refreshing beverages by juicing them and adding healthy water, a bit of sugar or honey, and some mint or lavender.
Children are enticed by the color, texture, scent and “magic” of homegrown vegetables and fruit. Get them involved when they're young and you'll send them into the future with healthy eating habits.
Below are two simple, kid-friendly recipes (both from The Forest Feast for Kids, by Erin Gleason; Abrams Books for Young Readers, 2016):
STRAWBERRY SALSA: Remove the stems of a tomato and two cups of strawberries. Now, chop all, along with a quarter of a red onion and ¼ cup of fresh cilantro. Add the juice from half (or more) of a lime. Mix all the above and add just a pinch of salt. Serve with crackers, or spoon onto a layer of cream cheese slathered on a whole-grain, crusty slice of bread. Heavenly! . . . and easy enough for a child to prepare if there is chopping supervision.
CAPRESE BITES: Stack one yellow or red cherry tomato, one mini mozzarella ball, and one or two basil leaves on a wooden toothpick. Sprinkle lightly with olive oil and salt before serving.
Vegetarian Meals
Like any other menu planning, a vegetarian meal can be as simple or complicated as you wish. Let's talk about the simple:
QUINOA SALAD OR MAIN DISH: Cooking up a batch of quinoa is a matter of rinsing the quinoa with cold water, putting water on to boil, and following package directions for the length of time to cook, usually 15 minutes or so. (Make extra, allow it to cool and put it into a couple of containers to be frozen for another day.) Dry or canned beans, couscous, and lentils may be used instead of or in addition to the quinoa. Add in some raw or partially steamed green beans, broccoli, or asparagus, turn up the flavor with your favorite fresh or dried herbs, or drizzle with some delicious extra virgin olive oil and a splash of vinegar, and voila! You have a great bowl of nutrition to which you may add any number of other ingredients.
If you can spend time chopping, here is another salad or main dish recipe you might like:
1 cup each finely diced tomato, cucumber, and onion
1 cup each finely chopped parsley and mint
3 Tbsp. each of extra virgin olive oil and fresh lemon juice
Salt and pepper to taste
Gently toss all ingredients together several times. The salad is fresh and delicious, and the quantities may be adjusted to taste.
A recipe that might surprise meat eaters:
PASTA IN EGGPLANT SAUCE
2 Tbsp. olive oil
1 eggplant, cut into 1-inch cubes
½ cup chopped onion
3 cloves garlic, crushed or finely chopped
Chopped fresh parsley
1 pound Roma tomatoes, chopped
1 6-ounce can tomato paste, or same amount made with fresh tomatoes
½ cup (or less) dry red wine
4-8 ounces mushrooms, sliced and sauteed in olive oil
1 teaspoon sugar
½ to 1 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon or more dried oregano or chopped fresh
1 pound spaghetti or rotini pasta (rotini will hold the sauce better)
Heat oil in large pan or Dutch oven over medium-high heat. Add eggplant, onion, garlic, and parsley. Stir until tender, approx. 5-6 mins. Stir in tomatoes, paste, wine, mushrooms, oregano, salt, and sugar. Reduce heat, cover, and simmer for 40 minutes or until desired consistency. Serve over cooked pasta, sprinkle with grated parmesan and fresh oregano.
A Bite of Food History
Let's examine some of the history of frozen vegetables and fruits. During the 1800s, experimentation began with the purpose of creating a machine that could produce frigid air. Scientists worked with liquids which would evaporate and draw heat from the surrounding air. Named refrigerants, these liquids were not safe for use in the home. Other factors also played a part. The cooling machinery built to contain the refrigerant was large, complicated, and operated by steam engine. These machines were installed in ships, which cleared the way for meat to be shipped around the world. Research continued and eventually the home refrigerator was a viable appliance in the early 1900s. It took scientists a while longer to perfect the freezer component of the refrigerator, but by the early 1930s, millions of refrigerators were sold in the U.S.
This invention now opened a door to safely freezing foods in massive quantities to be sold to the users of those refrigerators. Inventor Clarence Birdseye created machinery which would fast-freeze edibles. The speed of the freeze prevented the development of large ice crystals. The flavor of the frozen foods was therefore preserved! Birds Eye “frosted foods” hit the U.S. market on March 6, 1930. Ads invited customers to, “Be one of the first persons in the world to try these foods!” And the rest, as they say, is history.
(Credit to The History of Food, by Judith Jango-Cohen; Twenty-First Century Books, 2006)
Wrapping Up with a Tribute to this Author's Birthplace
An easy recipe for SUCCOTASH SALAD, y'all!
3 cups high quality canned or frozen corn
2 cups high quality canned or frozen shelled beans such as butterbeans or baby limas
3 garden-fresh medium tomatoes, skinned, seeded and chopped
½ cup chopped fresh basil
3 or more Tbsp. lime juice
¼ cup extra virgin olive oil
1 teaspoon Dijon mustard
Salt and pepper to taste
Whisk together lime juice, olive oil, and mustard. Season with salt and pepper. Pour dressing over the first four ingredients. Mix, refrigerate, and stir occasionally to meld flavors.
(Credit to The Lee Bros. Southern Cookbook, by Matt Lee & Ted Lee; W.W. Norton & Company, 2006)
Now grab a lawn chair and a mint julep—it's a lazy day!
- Author: Dr. John Giehl, Master Gardener
“Entangled Life:
How Fungi Make Our World, Change Our Minds & Shape Our Futures”
Merlin Sheldrake. New York: Random House, 2022.
The California Master Gardener Handbook (2015) introduces us to fungus in chapter six, which is titled “plant pathology.” It admonishes, “Fungus is the single most important cause of plant disease” (p. 151). 
The author of “Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds & Shape Our Future,” Merlin Sheldrake, holds a doctorate in tropical ecology from Cambridge and did his Smithsonian predoctoral research fellowship in the rain forests of Panama.
The “Entangled Life” is organized around an Introduction: What is It Like to Be A Fungus? followed by a handful of chapters covering information like:
Chapter one—Mycology primer
Chapter two—Mycelium the interconnectedness of reality/life
Chapter three—The intimacy of strangers, fungus plus alga = lichen
Chapter four—Mycelial minds, magic mushroom
Chapter five—Plants + fungus = healthy soil
Chapter six—The Wood Wide Web: subterranean communication, transportation
Chapter seven—Fungus as our environmental savior?
Chapter eight—Yeast = bread v. brew
Who should look at this book (if only for the great photographs)? Mycology hobbyists? Master gardeners? Environmentalists? Or if preparing for Jeopardy, “Entangled Life” should help if the category is astrobiology, e.g,:
Who coined the term “ecology”? Biologist Ernest Haeckel 1866 (p. 71)
Who coined the term “symbiosis” Botanist Albert Frank 1877 (p. 73)
What is the meaning of “entheogen”? A substance that elicits experience of the divine within (p. 94)
What is the definition of “periderm”? Bark (p. 273)
A factoid sampler from “Entangled Life”:
- Fungus is the largest living structure on earth. (p. 4). A fungus found in Michigan covered 180 acres and weighed 44 tons.
- 93% of plants are “mycorrhizal,” that is, dependent on the relationship between fungus and roots.
- Fungus plus alga makes lichen, which is the primer for soil formation. “The most valuable possession on earth is soil fertility” (p. 143).
- Alga manufactures its food by converting sunlight to fuel (photosynthesis), while fungus is an ultimate explorer/scavenger. It lives upon (“eats”) dead decaying matter, and is therefore a “saprophyte.”
- Half of global agriculture is dependent upon pollination.
- Fungus creates antibodies to the varroa mite, which is the main cause of bee colony collapse.
- There are eight (8) times more species of fungus than species of plants (p. 10).
- The relationship between fungus (mykos) and plant roots (rhiza) is a great example of how the ecosystem works (p. 12).
- Mycorrhizal substance is ? to ½ of living soil mass.
- Plants are the evolutionary consequence of the fungus/alga merger (p. 128).
- Fungus extracts nitrogen/phosphorus from soil, delivering it to plants thru roots. Meanwhile, plants deliver sugar/lipids to the fungus. It is a reciprocal, mutually beneficial arrangement (symbiosis).
- Fungus is composed of tubular threadlike structures (hyphae) conveying liquid. Fungus is bundled together in a web-like mesh network (mycelium).
- A malaria vaccine has been extracted from fungus (p. 277).
- Different species of fungus can decompose debris, including dirty diapers (15% of our solid waste reducing its mass by 80%), cigarette butts (the most common litter on the earth, p. 182) and polyurethane (plastic).
Book Quotables:
- “Fungus can save the world”—American mycologist Peter Stamet (p. 183)
- “Life is a process rather than a thing”—John Haldane (p. 243)
- “Everything in nature is hitched to everything else”—John Muir (p. 270)
- “All organisms are connected like a mesh net”—Alex von Humboldt
- “It's impossible to do science without metaphor”—evolutionary biologist Robert Lewontin (p. 211)
- “Life is composition and decomposition” (p. 224).
- “Collaboration is sharing of resources for mutual benefit” (p. 215)
- “Fungus (yeast) is why humans developed from hunter/gatherers to farmers, a cultural transformation from nomad to stationary”—anthropologist Levi Strauss (p. 203)
- “Yeast is key to bread and brew.”
- “60% of the living organisms on earth are its three trillion trees” (p. 177). This invites the sobriquet “wood wide web”?
Takeaways:
- Fungus is a great metaphor for life. It keeps changing and moving along. “The you of five years ago is made of different stuff than the you of today” (p. 53).
- Fungus is pretty “intelligent,” especially “If IQ is based upon how efficient one becomes doing what needs be done to survive” (p. 65).
- Fungus bioluminescence or “foxfire” invites insects to visit in the dark, therein helping to spread its spores (p. 49).
- Diversity of assets is a hedge against misfortune. “Fungus in adopting a mycelial network can both branch and fuse as needed” (p. 35). Fungus is capable of turning outward (evolution) and turning inward (involution) in the course of aging (p. 142).
- Collaboration with others may be key to success. Mutual benefit (symbiosis) is derived by merging. Fungus alignment with alga to form lichen creates an opportunity for both photosynthesis and non-photosynthesis survival. Life is both composition and decomposition (p. 224).
- Fungus receives a tiny fraction of the attention given to plants, but it's a valuable survivor that ingests decaying matter (saprophyte), and fungus is a poster child organism for recycling (“mycoremediation”) in the 21st century.
In short, fungus is a mystery that may be “good” or “bad” depending on your outlook. It grows, it spreads, it helps, it destroys. Even though it is often seen and discussed with a pejorative outlook, it might be helping us more than we realize.
When do you most love to be in your garden? A spring or summer morning comes to mind, or maybe a fall afternoon. Most gardeners spend plenty of time in the garden during the day; by observing as they tend to the plants, they are well aware of soil conditions, sunlight patterns, and microclimates, as well as the various creatures that inhabit the space. But what is going on in your garden at night? Maybe it's a bit of a mystery. Investigating that can add another dimension to your gardening.
What nocturnal animals may visit your garden at night? Raccoons, opossums, bats, owls, toads, and frogs are common, and there is a whole range of insects not commonly seen during the day, including nocturnal beetles and moths (more about moths below). Gardens sound different at night too. Insects you might hear include crickets, katydids, and grasshoppers. With fewer predators about at night, it makes sense that many insects are active then. A spring night would be an ideal time to spend some time enjoying your garden, becoming attuned to the sights, sounds, and scents that you won't encounter during the day. Ifmosquitos make you hesitant to venture outside at night, remember that eliminating standing water in your yard, wearing long sleeves, and using mosquito repellent will help control them. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends repellents containingDEET orPicaridin.
Moon Gardens
One way to increase enjoyment of your garden is to include plants that reflect moonlight. Before air conditioning, moon gardens were popular for outdoor parties, and they can be just as delightful today. Planning a garden for nighttime use isn't difficult. Any white or pale-colored flower will glow at night, helping to create a romantic, magical setting, and some have the added bonus of a scent that's stronger at night. The Carolee Shields White Flower Garden at the UC Davis Arboretum includes summer daphne (Daphne x transcaucasica), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), Argentine rain lily (Zephyranthes candida), and calla lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica). Another popular night-blooming plant is garden phlox (Phlox paniculata 'David'). Plants native to San Joaquin County with white or pale flowers are virgin's bower (Clematis ligusticifolia), dune primrose (Oenothera deltoides), yerba mansa (Anemopsis californica), and tricolor gilia (Gilia tricolor); they support several species of moths and other insects. The lovely white Douglas iris (Iris douglasiana ‘White') is a California native local to coastal regions, but it can be grown in moist, shady areas inland.
Nighttime pollinators
How important are moths as pollinators? While some flowers close at night (this is called floral nyctinasty), most do not, and nighttime pollinators take over for the day shift. Moths, bats, beetles, and even some bees are in this nocturnal group. A study by University College London found that moths are better at pollinating than previously thought; their hairy underbellies are very good at collecting pollen. Adding to their value, moths tend to migrate, and they can carry pollen up to 1,000 miles, increasing the genetic diversity of the plants they visit.
Some plants that have co-evolved with moths have characteristics that make them more attractive to nocturnal moths. Their white or pale flowers make them more visible at night and their scent may be stronger at that time. Until recently, researchers have focused primarily on daytime pollinators, sonighttime pollinators are an area that needs further study. The recent awareness of protecting daytime pollinators from pesticides is important, but it can have unintended results. For instance, some farmers spray pesticides at night to prevent bees from coming into direct contact with them, unfortunately not realizing the harm they are causing to moths, an often-disregarded group of pollinator heroes.
Light Pollution
In addition to the threats that all pollinators face—habitat loss, pesticide exposure, disease, and invasive species—moths and other nighttime insects are affected by light pollution. The disorientation caused by artificial lights can cause moths difficulty in finding mates and evading predators, with studies showing that moth mating and plant visitation is markedly decreased in areas with artificial lights.
As gardeners, we can help nocturnal pollinators by:
- Removing lights that serve only a cosmetic purpose
- Using motion-sensing lights that remain off unless someone is nearby
- Using shielding around outdoor lights that prevents light from escaping upward, and directing light to pathways rather than at plants or trees
- Closing curtains at night so indoor lighting doesn't spill outside
It's just a matter of becoming more aware of the light in our yards at night and considering ways to minimize or eliminate it.
We can all enjoy lesser-known, wonderful aspects of our gardens by spending time there at night, learning which insects and animals inhabit the space and which flowers are attracting pollinators. A spring evening is a good time to do this.
Resources:
CalScape (California Native Plant Society)
https://calscape.org
Firefly-Friendly Lighting Practices (Xerces Society)
https://www.xerces.org/sites/default/files/publications/19-055_Firefly_Friendly_Lighting_FS_web.pdf
Hit the Lights! The Impacts of Artificial Light on Ecosystems with Shannon Murphy, Pacific Horticulture Garden Futurist
https://pacifichorticulture.org/articles/hit-the-lights-the-impacts-of-artificial-light-on-ecosystems-with-garden-futurist-shannon-murphy/
Into the Night: Shedding Light on Nocturnal Pollinators (University of Arkansas)
https://aaes.uada.edu/news/night-pollinator/
Insects of the Night (Sonoma State University Center for Environmental Inquiry)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRCFgOs25S8
Mosquitos (UC IPM)
https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7451.html
The Night Shift: Moths as Nocturnal Pollinators (Xerces Society)
https://xerces.org/blog/the-night-shift-moths-as-nocturnal-pollinators
Why is there a moon garden in the arboretum? (UC Davis Arboretum)
https://arboretum.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk1546/files/inline-files/Moongarden.pdf
