Tous, Joan : J. Tous is Agricultural Engineer, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA) Mas de Bover research station, Constantí, Catalonia, Spain.

Romero, Agusti : A. Romero is Agricultural Engineer, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA) Mas de Bover research station, Constantí, Catalonia, Spain.

Hermoso, Juan Francisco : J. Francisco Hermoso is Agricultural Engineer, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA) Mas de Bover research station, Constantí, Catalonia, Spain.

Ninot, Antonia : A. Ninot is Agricultural Engineer, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaria (IRTA) Mas de Bover research station, Constantí, Catalonia, Spain.

RESEARCH ARTICLE â?¼ Mediterranean clonal selections evaluated for modern hedgerow olive oil production in Spain Vossen by Joan Tous , Agusti Romero , Juan Francisco Hermoso and Antonia Ninot M . Paul Traditional olive oil production is limited by its high cost , mainly due to labor expenses for harvesting and pruning . A new olive planting system based on hedgerows and harvesting machines could decrease production costs while maintaining high quality . To improve the efficiency of the continuous­straddle mechanical harvesters , vigor must be managed to limit tree size . However , few cultivars are adapted to this system . Selections from three cultivars are typically used in these super­high­ Olive trees have been cultivated for centuries in Mediterranean climates , including Californiaâ??s density orchards . We field­tested Central Valley ( shown ) . New super - high - density hedgerow systems allow for mechanical â?? Arbequina i­18 â?? , â?? Arbosana i­43 â?? harvesting , greatly reducing labor costs . and â?? Koroneiki i­38 â?? in an irrigated , other countries . Clonal selections of varieties â?? â?? Arbequina â?? and â?? Arbosana â?? super­high­density planting system local varieties were planted in new olive from Catalonia and â?? Koroneiki â?? from orchards with tree densities ranging Crete ( Greece ) â?? to identify those with in Catalonia ( northeast Spain ) . from 600 to 1,000 trees per acre ( 1,500 to outstanding characteristics such as We present a review of 6 years of 2,500 per hectare ) to test the suitability compact growth habits , low - medium horticultural data and summarize of the plants to mechanization and the vigor , early maturity and excellent oil sensory characteristics and other production of high - quality , extra - virgin quality ( Tous et al . 2003 ) . Agronomical olive oil . Traditional olive orchards have evaluations in Spain and other coun - properties of the resulting olive oils . 80 to 200 trees per acre ( 200 to 500 per tries have shown that these IRTA clones hectare ) . are precocious ( bearing their first crop he olive tree , olive fruit and olive Just a few olive varieties have at an earlier age than standard culti - Toil have been at the core of Mediter - been compared for their adaptabil - vars ) , achieve higher yields earlier after ranean agriculture and trade since early ity to high - density plantings and planting and produce extra - virgin oil of cultivation times , providing sustenance continuous mechanical harvest . Our excellent quality . to various cultures and civilizations program at the Institut de Recerca i California olive orchards of the Mediterranean Basin . Over the Tecnologia Agroalimentaria ( IRTA ) Olives were introduced in California last few decades , olive ( Olea europaea ) screened three old Mediterranean olive by the Catalan Franciscan fathers , who cultivation has undergone important planted olive trees in gardens adjacent technological changes , which have to their missions . Their olives and involved a reduction in the number of Editorâ??s note : More than 12,000 acres oil were appreciated not only as food olive oil varieties used , and an increase of olives have been planted in Cali - but also as an element in liturgical in the density of new plantations that is fornia using the super - high - density celebrations . linked to improvements in harvesting system . Research in California is in - Today , the predominant table olive machinery and irrigation systems . conclusive about the long - term viabil - industry in California is supported by In the early 1990s , a new design ity of super - high - density olive culture classic cultivars introduced for their and management strategy for olive under California growing conditions ; suitability to traditional and inten - orchards , the super - high - density hedge - further field studies based in the state sive table olive orchard systems ( Tous row system , appeared in Catalonia can address these questions . and Ferguson 1997 ; Vossen 2007 ) . In ( northeast Spain ) . Later it was intro - California , the industry generally plants duced into other Spanish regions and 34 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE â?¢ VOLUME 65 , NUMBER 1five cultivars ( Mission , Manzanillo , TABLE 1 . Horticultural characteristics of three olive tree clones tested in a super - high - density Sevillano , Ascolano and Barouni ) to planting system in Catalonia , Spain produce black - ripe olives ( Connell 2005 ) . â?? Mission â?? trees were likely intro - Characteristics Arbequina i - 18 Arbosana i - 43 Koroneiki i - 38 duced to California during Franciscan Vigor Low Very low Medium times , via Mexico in 1769 ( Sutter 2005 ) . Growth habit Semi - erect Open Open Olive planting for oil production , Canopy density Compact Compact Compact by contrast , has grown from negligible Precocity of bearing Early Early Early acreage in 1996 to approximately 16,000 acres ( 6,400 hectares ) by 2008 . Most of Productivity Very high and regular Very high and regular High this acreage , 12,000 acres ( 4,800 hect - Fructification In clusters In clusters In clusters ares ) , is planted in super - high - density Harvest season Early , midseason * Late â?  Midseason orchards with 560 to 870 trees per acre * Maturation occurs in Catalonia from about mid - November to mid - December . ( 1,400 to 2,175 per hectare ) ( UC Davis â?  Matures about 3 weeks later than â?? Arbequina â?? . Olive Center 2009 ) . hectares ] ) from traditional orchards Most high - density California olive remarkable quality such as California , located in the PDOs ( protected designa - plantings are three releases of IRTAâ??s Chile and Australia . tions of origin ) of Les Garrigues and clonal plant material from the Mas de We describe the performance and Siurana in northeast Spain . â?? Arbosana Bover research station in Catalonia , limitations of these olive oil clones in i - 43 â?? was selected in 1987 from sur - Spain , the initial selections from their comparative field trials performed in veys of the â?? Arbosana â?? cultivar in the olive improvement program started in an irrigated , super - high - density sys - Alt Penedès region in Catalonia . The the mid - 1980s . The IRTA clonal varieties tem in Catalonia , which supports their clone â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? was selected in currently available are â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? , adoption in modern orchards . We also 1990 from trees of this Greek variety â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? , contribute additional information to at the Mas de Bover research station . propagated in California by a few au - help define the suitable orchard design Morphological descriptions of the tree , thorized nurseries . The success of these and management of super - high - density leaf , fruit and endocarp for these culti - early clonal selections and the super - plantings in California . var clones have been published ( Tous et high - density system is also evidenced Horticultural characteristics al . 1999 ; Tous and Romero 2000 , 2002 ) . by their early adoption in traditional The clone â?? Arquebina i - 18 â?? was ob - olive oil â?? producing countries , such as Crop performance tained in 1997 in a program to identify Spain , Portugal , Tunisia and Morocco , The first comparative field trial with and select outstanding individuals of as well as diverse , nontraditional olive - these clones in super - high - density â?? Arbequina â?? , the most important culti - growing regions that are beginning hedgerow orchards was planted in var in Catalonia ( 160,000 acres [ 65,000 to produce extra - virgin olive oils of A B C The growth habit of 11 - year - old trees is shown for the IRTA clones ( A ) â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? ( B ) â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and ( C ) â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? , in a hedgerow , super - high - density planting system in 2009 , in Spain . http : / / californiaagriculture.ucanr.org â?¢ JANUARY â?? MARCH 2011 35As the newly planted super - high - density orchards in California enter their optimal olive oil production phase , it will be interesting to compare and follow experiences usually due to shade and observations with other regions . and limited ventila - tion in the tree cano - Tarragona in 1998 ( Tous et al . 2003 , influence of environment on precocity pies ( Tous et al . 2010 ) . The yields of 7 - to 2008 ) ( table 1 ) . and average crops achieved was larger 10 - year - old orchards are more variable Yields . Differences between vari - in Cordoba due to the higher vegetative and depend on management of the can - etals in cumulative fruit yield became tree growth in this province . opy volume , which should not exceed evident during early years of the trial The mean harvest of super - high - 143,000 to 171,500 cubic feet per acre to ( table 2 ) . In Tarragona , the highest density cultivars in Tarragona was facilitate movement of the over - the - row cumulative yields were measured for 4,397 pounds per acre ( 3rd year ) , 4,205 harvesters . Vigor . We observed the lowest tree â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? ( 31,875 pounds per pounds per acre ( 4th year ; frost on trees vigor ( trunk cross - section , canopy vol - acre ) followed by â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? ( 26,470 affected productivity ) , 10,344 pounds ume and sucker emission ) in â?? Arbosana pounds per acre ) and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? per acre ( 5th year ) and 7,291 pounds per i - 43 â?? and â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? ( table 3 ) . ( 22,361 pounds per acre ) . In a similar acre ( 6th year ) , all similar to harvests â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? is notorious for being trial in Cordoba ( Andalusia , southern obtained in other high - density orchards more vigorous and producing more Spain ) , â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? , â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? in Spain . The high yields observed in suckers than the other cultivars . The and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? showed higher early years of the Spanish trials and yield efficiency of each varietal clone mean harvest yields ( 3 to 6 years after commercial orchards are not sustain - was measured to determine the balance planting ) than other varieties tested able . Under the favorable growing con - between productive and vegetative ac - ( data not shown ) ( León et al . 2006 ) ; ditions that foster vigorous tree growth , tivity during the early bearing phase . in this southern location â?? Koroneiki a reduction in potential production The highest index scores were observed i - 38 â?? was the most precocious ( table 2 ) . occurs in the 6th to 8th years , with aver - in â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? and â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? During the first years of both trials , the ages of 7,138 to 8,030 pounds per acre , ( 0.12 pound per cubic foot ) , followed by â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? ( 0.07 pound per cubic TABLE 2 . Annual and cumulative yields of IRTA olive clones planted in 1998 ( Tarragona , Catalonia ) foot ) . â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? showed a higher and 2000 ( Cordoba , Andalusia ) , Spain , in a super - high - density planting system 2 and 6 years tendency to vegetative growth , and the after planting , respectively crop was irregular among trees during the first years of the trial . Arbequina i - 18 Arbosana i - 43 Koroneiki i - 38 Mechanical harvest . Several intrinsic Year Tarragona Cordoba Tarragona Cordoba Tarragona Cordoba varietal characteristics , such as growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lb / acre * habit and canopy width , influence the Second 1,102 0 803 273 0 3,213 efficiency of fruit removal during me - Third 6,002 13,203 4,771 15,305 2,416 18,502 chanical harvest . Our selections display Fourth â?  4,428 12,527 2,833 7,990 5,356 5,440 two growth habit categories : semi - erect Fifth 12,038 17,957 12,173 17,279 6,822 11,170 ( â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? ) and open canopy Sixth 8,305 5,519 5,890 6,583 7,678 4,027 ( â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? ) . Straddle machines or grape harvest - Average ( 3th â?? 6th ) 7,693 12,302 6,537 11,790 5,568 9,786 ers perform better than trunk shakers Cumulative yield 31,875 49,207 26,470 47,431 22,361 42,354 ( lb / acre ) for these cultivars . More than 90 % of * 1 lb / acre = 1.1209 kg / ha . the fruit was removed in all cultivars , â?  In the 4th year ( 2002 ) , crop yield was slightly lower due to frost problems in Tarragona ( December 2001 ) . independent of their size , position in Source : Tous et al . 2003 , 2008 ; León et al 2006 . the canopy and maturation index . By contrast , the efficiency of trunk - shaking TABLE 3 . Vegetative and productive characteristics of three olive cultivars growing in a 5 - year - old , harvesters is clearly influenced by super - high - density orchard in Catalonia , Spain , 2000 â?? 2003 ( 2nd â?? 5th year after planting ) growth habit ( Pastor et al . 1998 ) , and yield is improved with an erect or semi - Cumulative erect tree shape , large fruits and low Suckers TCSA * Canopy volume yield Cultivar ( 4th year ) ( 5th year ) ( 5th year ) ( 2nd - 5th year ) Yield efficiency fruit removal force . 2 3 3 â?  ft / acre lb / acre â?? lb / ft â?¡ in Disease . â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? is more Arbequina i - 18 0.4c § 5.54c 192.389ab 23.539a 0.12a sensitive than the other selections to olive leaf spot ( Spilocaea oleagina ) when Arbosana i - 43 1.4b 5.85bc 168.795b 21.330ab 0.12a planted in coastal environments and Koroneiki i - 38 5.2a 7.67a 189.674ab 14.594c 0.07bc humid valleys . â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? is more * Trunk cross - sectional area . 2 2 3 3 3 3 tolerant than the other two cultivars to = 6.4516 cm ; 1 ft / acre = 0.0700 m / ha ; 1 lb / acre = 1.1209 kg / ha ; 1 lb / ft = 16.0185 kg / m . â?  1 inch â?¡ Sum of first yields ( 2nd to 5th year ) per cubic foot of canopy volume at 5th year ( 2003 ) . frost , while â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? is the most § Mean separation within columns by Duncanâ??s multiple range test , P < 0.05 . sensitive . 36 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE â?¢ VOLUME 65 , NUMBER 1TABLE 4 . Fruit characteristics of three IRTA clones tested in an irrigated , super - high - density planting system in Catalonia , Spain , from trees 3 to 7 years old , 2001 â?? 2005 Harvest time . Gradual fruit ripening and maturation is commonly observed Pulp / stone Cultivar Fruit weight ratio Oil content Moisture Oil content in the three cultivars , although this parameter is highly influenced by tree g % fresh weight % % dry weight fruit load and seasonal conditions as Arbequina i - 18 1.72 ± 0.18 * 4.31 ± 0.59 21.9 ± 1.0 60.1 ± 3.0 54.4 ± 2.5 well as geographical location . Optimal Arbosana i - 43 1.59 ± 0.37 4.69 ± 0.54 19.8 ± 0.8 61.1 ± 2.2 50.7 ± 2.8 harvest time is different for each of the Koroneiki i - 38 0.90 ± 0.14 3.44 ± 0.84 22.9 ± 0.8 56.0 ± 2.3 52.4 ± 3.4 cultivars : â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? is optimal in * Mean values ± standard error ( SE ) . Catalonia from mid - November to mid - December , â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? matures in TABLE 5 . Olive oil characteristics * of three IRTA clones tested in an irrigated , super - high - density late December and â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? in planting system in Catalonia , Spain , from trees 5 to 6 years old , 2003 and 2004 mid - January . Fruit and oil characteristics . â?? Arbe - Palmitic Oleic acid , Linoleic Linolenic Total quina i - 18 â?? produced larger fruits Cultivar acid , C16 : 0 C18 : 1 acid , C18 : 2 acid , C18 : 3 polyphenols Bitterness Oil stability than the other two cultivars ( table 4 ) . ppm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hours â?  % cafeic acid K The pulp / stone ratio was higher for 225 Arbequina i - 18 14.5a â?¡ 69.4c 11.1a 0.72b 234b 0.2a 9.10b â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? , followed by â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? . Fruit wa - Arbosana i - 43 13.6a 73.0b 7.9b 0.9a 343a 0.30a 12.8ab ter content ranged between 56.0 % in Koroneiki i - 38 11.4b 76.6a 6.89c 0.93a 400a 0.45b 15.23a â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? and 61.1 % in â?? Arbosana * Oil characteristics : main fatty acid composition ( % ) , total polyphenols ( ppm cafeic acid ) , bitterness ( K ) and oil stability . 225 i - 43 â?? . Oil content expressed as per - â?  Oil stability against oxidation , applying Rancimat method ( hours at 120ºC ) . â?¡ Mean separation within columns by Duncanâ??s multiple range test , P < 0.05 . centage of dry weight was higher in â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? ( 54.4 % ) , followed by The most consistent plant character - â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? ( 52.4 % ) and â?? Arbosana the three , and â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? oils had istics and performance , as observed in i - 43 â?? ( 50.7 % ) . an intermediate palate profile . Oil com - super - high - density orchards around the The three clonal selections pro - position and flavor change as the olive world , can be summarized as follows : duced extra - virgin olive oil of excellent fruit develops . The distinctive and con - â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? . This highly produc - quality . The fatty acid composition of trasting sensory attributes of the extra - tive variety is early bearing with little â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? and â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? virgin oils from each varietal allows alternating bearing . It is considered oils was similar ( table 5 ) . â?? Koroneiki for unique blends with a wide range of frost resistant and adaptable to differ - i - 38 â?? oil is characterized by a higher interesting sensory characteristics . ent climatic and soil conditions , and is content of oleic acid ( more than 76 % ) Field observations adaptable to high - density and super - at the expense of palmitic and linoleic Initial observations from the Mas de high - density hedgerow orchards . Its acid , which contribute to longer shelf Bover cultivar trials and orchard design semi - erect growth habit facilitates its life . â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? evaluations , initiated in the 1980s , have training on a central leader . It produces oils were consistently richer in poly - been validated by the worldwide adop - medium - fruited extra - virgin oil that phenols than â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? . When tion of IRTAâ??s clonal selections . The is balanced in the mouth ; the sweet compared at the organoleptic sensory three initial selections described here attribute is outstanding and easily ap - level ( fig . 1 ) , â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? oil was have been planted in new high - density preciated by new consumers . Its com - the most balanced of the three , with a ( 121 to 242 trees per acre ) and super - mercialization can be monovarietal or medium fruity intensity , balanced in high - density ( over 600 trees per acre ) blended with other oils . the palate and an outstanding sweet - â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? . This is an early - olive tree orchards around the world , ness . â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? produced the most bearing cultivar with high productivity . and most recently California . fruity , green , bitter and pungent oil of A B C Fruity Fruity Fruity Green Artichoke Twiggy Apple Apple Apple almond Ripe Ripe Ripe Green Green Green fruits fruits fruits leaves leaves grass Sweetness Sweetness Sweetness Bitterness Bitterness Bitterness Astringency Pungency Astringency Pungency Astringency Pungency Fig . 1 . Sensorial profiles of olive oils from three IRTA clones : ( A ) â?? Arbequina i - 18 â?? , ( B ) â?? Arbosana i - 43 â?? and ( C ) â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? . The green polygon represents the intensity of each taste attribute scored on a 10 - point scale . http : / / californiaagriculture.ucanr.org â?¢ JANUARY â?? MARCH 2011 37â?? Arbequina â?? i - 18 â?? Arbosana â?? i - 43 Fruit of three clones used in super - high - sources of novel germplasm to produce density planting systems . â?? Arbequina olives of improved agronomic perfor - i - 18 â?? and â?? Arbosana mance and desirable olive oil sensory i - 43 â?? are native to attributes . Catalonia , Spain , and â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? As the newly planted super - high - is native to Greece . density orchards in California enter their optimal olive oil production phase , it will be interesting to compare experiences and observations with other regions in terms of economic vi - ability , orchard management and sus - tainability , natural resource utilization â?? Koroneiki â?? i - 38 and extra - virgin oil qualities . Due to its low vigor , it adapts well for varietal characteristics that can im - to hedgerow systems for olive grow - prove productivity , a low vigor / compact ing . Sensitive to frost , its fruit is small growth habit , disease resistance and J . Tous is Agricultural Engineer , A . Romero is and ripens several weeks later than extra - virgin olive oil with high levels Agricultural Engineer , J . Francisco Hermoso is â?? Arbequina â?? . It produces intense , green - of antioxidants . IRTA recently initiated Agricultural Engineer , and A . Ninot is Agricultural fruited virgin oil with high levels of a project to catalogue a collection of Engineer , Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroali - bitterness , spiciness and astringency . ancient trees ( estimated 500 to 700 years mentaria ( IRTA ) Mas de Bover research station , Due to its higher polyphenol content , it old ) in local orchards around northeast Constantí , Catalonia , Spain . We are grateful to the is particularly interesting for blending Spain that contain individual trees of owners of the La Boella farm ( La Canonja , Spain ) for their collaboration in this trial . and to stabilize and prolong the shelf unclear varietal origin , as potential life ( time to rancidity ) of the milder â?? Arbequina â?? oil . Tous J , Romero A . 2002 . Ficha varietal de olivo â?? Koro - â?? Koroneiki i - 38 â?? . This is a productive References neiki IRTA i - 38 â?? . Olint 6 : 23 â?? 5 . and early - bearing cultivar . It is consid - Connell JH . 2005 . History and scope of the olive in - Tous J , Romero A , Hermoso JF . 2010 . New trends in dustry . In : Sibbett GS , Ferguson L ( eds . ) . Olive Produc - ered drought resistant but frost sensi - olive orchard design for continuous mechanical har - tion Manual ( 2nd ed . ) . UC ANR Pub 3353 . Oakland tive , and well suited to hot growing vesting . Adv Hort Sci 24 ( 1 ) : 43 â?? 52 . CA . p 1 â?? 10 . Tous J , Romero A , Plana J . 1999 . â?? IRTA - i - 18 â?? , a clone areas . It is tolerant to olive leaf spot and León L , de la Rosa R , Guerrero N , et al . 2006 . Ensayos of the â?? Arbequina â?? olive cultivar . Olivae 77 ( 6 ) : 50 â?? 2 . de variedades de olivo en plantación de alta densi - has very small fruit , which ripen after dad . Fruticultura Profesional 160 : 21 â?? 6 . Tous J , Romero A , Plana J . 2003 . Plantaciones super - â?? Arbequina â?? but before â?? Arbosana â?? . It intensivas en olivar . Comportamiento de 6 variedades . Pastor M , Humanes J , Vega V , Castro A . 1998 . Diseño produces quite - stable extra - virgin oils , Agricultura 851 ( 4 ) : 346 â?? 50 . y manejo de plantaciones de olivar . Monografías , 22 / 98 . Ed . Consejeria de Agricultura y Pesca . Junta de Tous J , Romero A , Plana J , Hermoso JF . 2008 . Olive oil rich in oleic acid and polyphenols , with Andalucía , Sevilla . cultivars suitable for very high density planting condi - intense green color and bitterness , and tions . Acta Hort 791 : 403 â?? 8 . Sutter EG . 2005 . Olive cultivars and propagation . a long shelf - life . In : Sibbett GS , Ferguson L ( eds . ) . Olive Production UC Davis Olive Center . 2009 . Survey of Super High Manual ( 2nd ed . ) . UC ANR Pub 3353 . Oakland CA . Density Olive Production in California . http : / / olivecen - Olive tree breeding program p 19 â?? 25 . ter.ucdavis.edu / files / survey % 20111509 % 20revised . pdf . Tous J , Ferguson L . 1997 . Olive growing in California . Scientists at IRTAâ??s Mas de Bover re - Olivae 67 : 18 â?? 26 . Vossen PM . 2007 . Olive oil : History , production and search station are evaluating additional characteristics of the worldâ??s classic oils . HortScience Tous J , Romero A . 2000 . â?? Arbosana IRTA i - 43 â?? . Olint 42 ( 5 ) : 1093 â?? 100 . 2 : 13 â?? 5 . clonal materials and old orchards of ol - ive varieties , and prioritizing the search 38 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE â?¢ VOLUME 65 , NUMBER 1Olive cultivars field - tested in super - high - density system in southern Italy by Angelo Godini , Gaetano Alessandro Vivaldi , â?? Arbosana â?? and â?? Koroneiki â?? , two ad - California production of extra - virgin and Salvatore Camposeo ditional cultivars were introduced : olive oil is reportedly about 2 % of total â?? Coratina â?? , the most popular Apulian U.S . consumption , with the rest im - olive oil cultivar , and â?? Urano â?? , a new ported mainly from Italy and Spain . In ccording to the International Ol - Italian cultivar considered by our recent years , California has started in - Aive Oil Council , world olive oil research group to be well - suited for creasing its oil olive acreage . California consumption has risen from 2.8 mil - super - high - density olive culture . olive growers have planted more than lion tons ( 1991 - 1992 ) to 3.5 million tons The olive trees were propagated in 22,000 acres since 1999 , about 12,000 ( 2005 - 2006 ) , due to increases in the commercial nurseries by softwood cut - acres of which is in the super - high - consumption of healthier foods in many ting , and the experimental orchard was density olive system , with tree densities countries , including the United States . established according to the super - high - of 676 per acre or more . This system al - The market outlook for extra - virgin ol - density planting scheme ( 676 plant per lows for mechanical planting and har - ive oil is very good , and many countries acre , with a tree spacing of 157.5 inches vesting of olives , reducing labor costs . are actively increasing their olive acre - by 59 inches ) and a north - south row We believe that super - high - density ages , particularly in North Africa , the orientation . The trees were trained to olive culture can help to assure profit - Middle East , South America , Australia central leaders . Drip irrigation was sup - ability for both European and U.S . olive and the United States ( Godini 2010 ) . plied to each tree every 3 days between growers in the coming decades . This The Mediterraneanâ??s traditional olive late spring and late summer , increasing model , born in Spain at the end of the industry is based on production sys - from 423 cubic yards per acre annually 20th century , has resulted in noticeable tems that are hundreds of years old and in 2006 , to 476 in 2007 , to 794 in 2008 increases in yield per acre . Up until characterized by low yields and high and 2009 . Harvesting was performed now , super - high - density olive culture production costs . The European Union on Nov . 20 in 2008 and 2009 , in the third has utilized a limited number of culti - subsidy system , which has helped and fourth years after planting , respec - vars , primarily â?? Arbequina â?? , â?? Arbosana â?? European olive farmers to stay in busi - tively , using the Pellenc Activ â?? 4560 har - and â?? Koroneiki â?? , which possess suitable vesting machine . features such as a semi - Vossen dwarf habit , early bearing Cultivar M.performance ( first production at the Paul Vegetation . In December 2009 , the second - to - third year after average tree height had reached 107 planting ) , consistent ini - inches , 5.3 times the initial growth of tial crops ( more than 2.2 the previous year , with a maximum of pounds per plant ) , crop 7.6 times more growth for â?? Arbequina â?? stabilization between 5 and a minimum of 2.2 times more for and 6 years , and fruit that â?? Urano â?? ( table 1 ) . Only the crown width is impact - resistant and has of â?? Coratina â?? exceeded 79 inches by good oil quality ( Godini and Bellomo 2002 ) . TABLE 1 . Tree height at planting ( June - July 2006 ) The results that we pres - and December 2009 , crown width in ent here are preliminary . December 2009 Considering that Italyâ??s Mediterranean climate Super - high - density hedgerow planting systems for olives Crown is similar to Californiaâ??s , employ over - the - row harvesters ( shown , in California ) . Tree height width we believe that soil and December December ness , will end in 2014 . Moreover , the climate differences should have little Cultivar Planting 2009 2009 application of a â?? free exchange â?? area influence on the applicability of these inches in 2010 will legalize the importation of findings to California . Arbequina 14.1b * 107.3b 77.5b lower - cost extra - virgin olive oils from Arbosana 13.0b 97.0c 77.7b Experimental orchard the southern Mediterranean Basin into Coratina 16.9b 120.9a 96.5a In summer 2006 , we established Europe ( Godini 2010 ) . Year after year , Koroneiki 16.0b 117.6a 78.4b a new experimental orchard at the profitability of Italyâ??s traditional Urano 41.1a 92.7c 74.5b Valenzano , near Bari , in the experimen - olive culture becomes increasingly tal farm of the Dipartimento di Scienze doubtful , notwithstanding the world - Mean 20.2 107.1 80.9 delle Produzioni Vegetali at University wide renown of so - called â?? Made in * Within the same column and for a single parameter , different letters mark values significantly different at Aldo Moro of Bari , Italy . In addition Italy â?? extra - virgin olive oil ( Godini and P = 0.01 ( SNK test ) . to standard clones of â?? Arbequina â?? , Bellomo 2002 ) . http : / / californiaagriculture.ucanr.org â?¢ JANUARY â?? MARCH 2011 39December 2009 , exceeding the harvester TABLE 2 . Fruit production per year , cumulative yield at the third ( 2008 ) and fourth ( 2009 ) year after tunnel size and requiring pruning planting , and mean oil output and cumulative production intervention to control its transverse canopy growth . Fruit production Annual yields . The average annual Cumulative Mean oil Cumulative oil Cultivar 3rd year 4th year yield * output production yield in the third year was 7.7 pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds / tree â?  tons / acre % tons / acre per tree , equivalent to 2.3 tons per acre ; Arbequina 5.5b â?¡ 12.4ab 33.4b 17.7 5.68b only â?? Urano â?? exhibited a surprisingly high yield of 3.7 tons per acre ( table Arbosana 6.2b 12.6ab 35.1ab 17.5 5.83b 2 ) . In the fourth year , the average crop Coratina 7.1b 11.3b 34.1b 17.3 5.86b yield was 11 pounds per tree or 3.3 Koroneiki 8.4b 13.7a 41.3a 15.0 6.89a tons per acre ( up 40 % from 2008 ) , and Urano 12.1a 4.9c 31.6c 16.8 5.26b it was more variable among cultivars . Mean 7.7 11.0 35.1 16.9 5.91 â?? Koroneiki â?? , â?? Arbosana â?? and â?? Arbequina â?? * Over four years of the trial . followed by â?? Coratina â?? gave satisfactory â?  7.73 pounds per tree = 2.3 tons per acre . yield ( between 13.7 and 11.3 pounds per â?¡ Within the same column and for a single parameter , different letters mark values significantly different at P = 0.01 ( SNK test ) . tree or 4.1 and 3.4 tons per acre ) . The yield for â?? Urano â?? dropped to 4.9 pounds We know that higher yields have efficiency ; â?? Arbosana â?? and â?? Koroneiki â?? per tree or 1.5 tons per acre , perhaps been recorded elsewhere with super - were less satisfactory . But these differ - due to heavy cropping in the previous high - density olive culture ; however , ences were due to the fruit - ripening year . Cumulative yields and oil . We also we consider annual yields of about stages reached by each cultivar at the compared cumulative yields over the 17.5 tons per acre of fruit to be satisfac - harvesting date : mature for â?? Arbequina â?? , first 4 years of the trial . â?? Koroneiki â?? tory . In fact , this value , equivalent to a â?? Coratina â?? and â?? Urano â?? , but immature showed the highest cumulative yield yield of only about 9.4 pounds per tree , â?? Arbosana â?? and â?? Koroneiki â?? . ( 41.3 tons per acre ) , and â?? Urano â?? was would be helpful in avoiding alternate No damaged fruits were reported for relatively less productive ( 31.6 tons per bearing and subsequent problems that â?? Arbequina â?? , â?? Arbosana â?? and â?? Koroneiki â?? , acre ) ( table 2 ) . The peculiar behavior of could cause conflicts between vegeta - whereas â?? Coratina â?? and â?? Urano â?? exhib - â?? Urano â?? requires further investigation . tive growth and cropping consistency . ited very low percentages of damaged Considering its average overall oil con - Tree size can be controlled by pruning fruit . tent of about 17.0 % , â?? Koroneiki â?? was the when they grow larger than the size of The average percentage of shoots most productive cultivar with 6.9 tons the harvester head . Our data indicates damaged per tree by the harvesting ma - per acre of oil over 4 years . The other that the noted yield limit was reached chine beaters was insignificant at less cultivars exhibited similar cumulative by at least four out of five cultivars in than 1.0 % . Of these damaged shoots , oil production . just the 4th year after planting . young and thin current - year shoots Harvesting efficiency , fruit and shoot incurred the most damage ( 80.0 % ) , per - Harvesting efficiency was damage . haps because they were more exposed . satisfactory on the whole ( 93.1 % ) , not - The percentage of damaged shoots up A . Godini is Professor , G . Allesandro Vivaldi is withstanding differences among cul - to 1 inch in diameter was 14.3 % , and Ph.D . Student , and S . Camposeo is Ph.D . Re - tivars ( table 3 ) . â?? Arbequina â?? , â?? Coratina â?? to shoots thicker than 1 inch was 5.7 % . searcher , Dipartimento di Scienze delle Produzioni and â?? Urano â?? had the highest harvest Only â?? Coratina â?? and â?? Urano â?? exhibited Vegetali , University Aldo Moro of Bari , Italy . The a significant percentage of broken authors wish to thank Provincia di Bari , Italy , for its financial support of this research . shoots or branches thicker than 1 inch : â?? Coratina â?? because of its spreading habit TABLE 3 . Harvesting efficiency , damaged fruits References and damaged shoots per tree , as mean of the between rows , and â?? Urano â?? because of Camposeo S , Ferrara G , Palasciano M , Godini A . 2008 . third and fourth year after planting its spreading habit and thick , bending Varietal behaviour according to the superintensive olive - culture training system . Acta Hortic 791 : 271 â?? 4 . branches . Harvesting Fruit Shoots Camposeo S , Godini A . 2010 . Preliminary results about Cultivar efficiency damaged damaged the performance of 13 cultivars according to the su - High density , high yields per high density oliveculture training system in Apulia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . % n / tree ( Southern Italy ) . Adv Hortic Sci 24 ( 1 ) : 16 â?? 20 . The present data confirms and im - Arbequina 97.2a * 0.0c 0.4b Camposeo S , Vivaldi GA , Gallotta A , et al . 2010 . Valu - proves upon results obtained in previ - tazione chimica e sensoriale degli oli di alcune varietà Arbosana 87.1b 0.0c 0.5ab ous experimental trials ( Camposeo and di olivo allevate in Puglia con il modello superintensivo . Coratina 97.3a 1.5a 0.2c Frutticoltura 72 ( 6 ) : 80 - 83 ( in Italian with summary in Godini 2010 ) . In terms of early bearing English ) . Koroneiki 87.6b 0.0c 0.6a and yield consistency , all the tested cul - Godini A . 2010 . Lâ??olivicoltura italiana tra valorizzazione Urano 96.0a 0.4b 0.2c tivars performed satisfactorily . And in e innovazione . Frutticoltura 72 ( 6 ) : 52 â?? 69 ( in Italian with summary in English ) . sensory evaluations , the resulting extra - Mean 93.1 0.4 0.4 Godini A , Bellomo F . 2002 . Olivicoltura superintensiva virgin oils had sweet typology and * Within the same column and for a single parameter , in Puglia per la raccolta meccanica con vendemmiatrice . different letters mark values significantly different at were well - balanced , highly fruity and International Congress of Oliveculture . Spoleto ( Italy ) , P = 0.01 ( SNK test ) . ready to use ( Camposeo et al . 2010 ) . April 22 - 23 : 230 â?? 4 ( in Italian with summary in English ) . 40 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE â?¢ VOLUME 65 , NUMBER 1