Posts Tagged: Race 4
Many minority students go to schools where at least half of their peers are their race or ethnicity
Meanwhile, whites, who continue to make up by far the largest share of the U.S. public school population, tend to go to schools where half or more of students are white.
In 2014, the most recent year for which data are available, 44.1% of black public elementary and secondary school students attended schools where at least half of their peers were also black. Among Hispanics, 56.7% went to schools where at least half of students were also Hispanic.
Since 1995, black public-school students have become somewhat less isolated from students of other racial or ethnic backgrounds, while Hispanics have become more isolated. In 1995, 51.4% of blacks were attending schools where at least half of students were black. Meanwhile, 52.6% of Hispanics were going to schools where half or more students were Hispanic.
These long-term shifts in enrollment are partly the result of the changing racial and ethnic composition of the United States – and, as a result, of its public schools.
The share of Hispanics enrolled in public schools has almost doubled since 1995, when they made up 13.5% of all students. As the share of students who are Hispanic has grown, the share who are black has decreased slightly.
In 2014, about eight-in-ten whites (81.6%) attended schools where at least half of students were also white, a decrease from 90.5% in 1995.
The share of white public-school students attending schools where the vast majority of students are white has also shrunk over the past 20 years. In 1995, nearly half (48.6%) of white public-school students attended schools where at least 90% of students were also white. In 2014, this was the case for just 21.9% of white students. The share of blacks attending schools where at least 90% of students are black has also decreased, from 22.1% in 1995 to 15.4% in 2014. But the share of Hispanics attending schools where at least 90% of students are Hispanic has grown slightly since 1995, from 15.4% to 16.9%.
Asians, who have also driven part of the growth in America's classrooms and in the country overall in recent years, are less likely than whites, blacks and Hispanics to attend schools where at least half of students are their own race or ethnicity. In 2014, just 12.9% of Asians attended schools where this was the case, which is likely due to their relatively small share of the overall public-school population. American Indians, Alaska Natives and Pacific Islanders – who make up even smaller shares of the public student population – were also much less likely than those in other racial or ethnic groups to attend schools where at least half of students are of the same race or ethnicity.
Source: Published originally on pewresearch.org, Many minority students go to schools where at least half of their peers are their race or ethnicity, by Abigail Geiger, October 25th , 2017.
First report of three entomopathogenic fungi offering protection against the plant pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum
Entomopathogenic fungi such as Beauveria bassiana, Isaria fumosorosea, and Metarhizium brunneum play an important role in managing several arthropod pests on multiple crops. Multiple genera of entomopathogenic fungi are available as biopesticides and used in organic and conventional agriculture. Compared to chemical pesticides, entomopathogenic fungi-based pesticides are expensive. While they are excellent tools in integrated pest management (IPM) approaches against several pests, their high cost relative to chemical pesticides can be a hindrance to their widespread use. Exploring their multipurpose use in promoting plant growth and protecting plants from pathogens can increase their acceptance as farmers can get multiple benefits beyond arthropod management when they use entomopathogenic fungi.
Some studies showed the positive impact of entomopathogenic fungi on promoting plant growth and health (Sasan and Bidochka, 2012; Dara, 2013; Dara et al. 2016). Other studies that demonstrated antagonistic effect of entomopathogenic fungi against non-arthropod pests include, B. bassiana against Fusarium oxysporum and Botrytis cinerea (Bark et al., 1996) and Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium myriotylum (Ownley et al. 2008), Lecanicillum lecanii (=Verticillium lecanii)against cucumber powdery mildew, Podosphaera fuliginea (=Sphaerotheca fuliginea) (Askary et al., 1998), Lecanicillium spp. against plant pathogens and parasitic nematodes (Goettel et al., 2008), M. robertsii against Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli (Sasan and Bidochka, 2013). These reports show the potential of entomopathogenic fungi in serving multipurpose role in improving plant growth and protecting against multiple groups of pests.
A new greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of B. bassiana (BotaniGard), I. fumosorosea (Pfr-97), and M. brunneum (Met 52) in comparison with other beneficial microbe- (Actinovate and MBI 110) or plant extract-based (Regalia) products in providing protection against a plant pathogen. Cotton was used as the model plant and F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Race 4 (FOV Race 4) was used as the plant pathogen in this study.
Pima cotton seed of the variety Phy830 (Phytogen) susceptible to FOV Race 4 were planted in potting mix 0.33X103 CFU/g of FOV Race 4 in seedling trays. Healthy potting mix was used as untreated control. Six products, listed below, were applied in three regimens based on foliar application rate (10 ml of the treatment liquid calculated based on 100 gallons of spray volume/ac) or soil application rate (10 ml of the treatment liquid with product calculated based on the surface area of the cell at the soil application rate per acre) to each cell of the tray. Each treatment had 16 cells (or seedlings) and was replicated four times.
Treatments
- Healthy potting mix (negative control)
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 (positive control)
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + BotaniGard ES (B. bassiana Strain GHA) 2 qrt/ac
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + Met 52EC (M. brunneum Strain F52) 2 (foliar rate) and 2.5 (soil rate) qrt/ac
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + Pfr-97 20% WDG (I. fumosorosea Apopka Strain 97) 2 lb/ac
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + Actinovate AG (Streptomyces lydicus WYEC 108) 54 oz/ac
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + Regalia (Extract of Reynoutria sachalinensis) 4 qrt/ac
- Potting mix with FOV Race 4 + MBI 110 (developmental product from Marrone Bio Innovations) 4 qrt/ac
Treatments were applied in the following three regimens. Soil application rate was calculated based on the surface area of each seedling cell (2.25 square inches) compared to one-acre rate and delivered in 10 ml of purified water with 0.01% Dyne-Amic as a surfactant. Foliar rate was calculated based on 100 gallons/ac spray volume and each cell received 10 ml. Untreated control and potting mix with plant pathogen received water with Dyne-Amic.
Regimen A - 10 ml of water or treatment liquid at soil application rate administered right after planting cotton seed.
Regimen B - 10 ml of water or treatment liquid at soil application rate administered right after and 1 and 2 weeks after planting.
Regimen C – 10 ml of water or treatment liquid at foliar application rate administered right after planting.
Seedling trays were arranged on a greenhouse bench and a sprinkler system irrigated trays for 5 min each day at noon. Plant health and growth conditions were monitored 3, 4, and 5 weeks after planting based on the following scale.
0 - Did not germinate or dead or necrosis of cotyledons/leaves and hypocotyl/stem
1.0 - Stem green, but dying leaf/leaves
1.5 - At least one green leaf and cotyledons/other leaves necrotic
2.0 - Green new leaves and yellowing cotyledons/older leaves
2.5 - Green and bigger new leaves with slightly yellowing older leaves
3.0-4.5 - Varying levels of healthy plant
5.0 - Very healthy plant with optimal growth
Data were analyzed using ANOVA model and significant means were separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test.
Treatments were separated by an empty row to prevent cross contamination. Experimental set up at the time of planting (above) and 1 week after planting (below).
Experiment 2 weeks after planting (above).
Symptoms of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum appear by the third week after planting (above) and advance by the fifth week (below).
Results and discussion
In general, there was a positive impact of treatments on reducing the severity of FOV Race 4 in cotton seedlings, but it varied with time and among treatment regimens. Negative control plants did not show any symptoms of infection – yellowing, necrosis, or wilting - and consistently maintained a high health rating of about 4.8 out of 5.0 (Table 1).
Table 1. Plant health rating 3, 4, and 5 weeks after planting in three treatment regimens.
Regimen A: Treatments were significantly different (P < 0.00001) on all observation dates, but when negative control was disregarded, differences were seen only on the first observation date, which was 3 weeks after planting. Pfr-97, Met 52, and Actinovate resulted in a significant improvement in the plant health compared to the other treatments. On the following observation dates, plant health rating was higher in all treatments compared to the positive control with FOV Race 4, but the differences were not statistically significant.
Refer to Table 1 for statistical significance between treatment means in Regimen A.
Regimen B: In this regimen, where treatments were applied three times at a weekly interval starting from the time of planting, plants treated with Pfr-97, Met 52, and Actinovate a better health rating than the positive control throughout the observation period. MBI 110 was also better than the positive control 3 weeks after planting, but not afterwards. Plant health in Regalia and BotaniGard treatments was better than FOV Race 4 alone, but it was not significantly different.
Refer to Table 1 for statistical significance between treatment means in Regimen B.
Regimen C: This regimen aimed the impact of treating the soil with a higher concentration (based on foliar application rate) of treatments. BotaniGard-treated plants were significantly healthier than MBI 110, Pfr-97, Actinovate, and FOV Race 4 alone on 3 weeks after planting and all the treatments (excluding the positive control) on 4 and 5 weeks after planting.
Refer to Table 1 for statistical significance between treatment means in Regimen C.
Treatments compared among all regimens: When treatments were analyzed by combining all regimens, Met 52, Pfr-97, BotaniGard, and MBI 110 significantly improved plant health over FOV Race 4 alone, 3 weeks after planting (Table 2). However, BotaniGard provided significantly higher protection than all other treatments against FOV Race 4 during the rest of the observation period.
Table 2. Efficacy of treatments 3, 4, and 5 weeks after planting (WAP) when data from different regimens were combined.
Comparing regimens: Data were combined among all treatments and analyzed to compare the efficacy of different regimens. Multiple applications of beneficial microbe or plant extract based pesticides at low concentration or single application of a higher concentration were better than single application of lower concentration especially 4 and 5 weeks after planting (Table 3).
Table 3. Efficacy of different regimens against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum infection.
Results suggest that non-chemical treatment options used in the study provide some level of protection against the plant pathogen FOV Race 4. It is very important to note that one or more entomopathogenic fungi antagonized FOV Race 4 equal to or better than other products that are based on beneficial microbes or plant extracts known to have fungicidal effect. Bennett et al. (2011) compared endomycorrhizal product AM120 based on Glomus spp. with chemical fumigants (methyl bromide, chloropicrin, 1, 3-dichloroprepene, and metam-sodium) and solarization in multiple field studies. Efficacy of these treatments varied in different experiments and among cotton varieties. While conventional treatments typically provided superior protection against FOV Race 4, mycorrhizae at times was comparable to some of the other treatments in some instances. Even if fumigants are used before planting for a healthy start, periodic soil treatment with beneficial microbes could help maintain plant health for the rest of the crop season.
This is the first study where B. bassiana, I. fumosorosea, and M. brunneum were compared with other non-chemical alternatives against a plant pathogen and demonstrating their potential in offering plant protection. These results shed light in a developing area of science where alternative uses for entomopathogenic fungi are explored. Additional experimentation with different concentrations of the plant pathogen and beneficial microbes would expand our understanding of their interactions.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to BioWorks, Inc., Certis USA, Marrone Bio Innovations, Monsanto BioAg, and Valent BioSciences for providing biopesticide samples used in the study.
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References:
Askary H., Y. Carrière, R. R. Bélanger, and J. Brodeur. 1998. Pathogenicity of the fungus Verticillium lecanii to aphids and powdery mildew. Biocon. Sci. Tech. 8: 23-32.
Bark, Y. G., D. G. Lee, S. C. Kang, and Y. H. Kim. 1996. Antibiotic properties of an entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana on Fusarium oxysporum and Botrytis cinerea. Korean J. Plant Pathol. 12: 245-250.
Bennett, R. S., D. W. Spurgeon, W. R. DeTar, J. S. Gerik, R. B. Hutmacher, and B. D. Hanson. 2011. Efficacy of four soil treatments against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vacinfectum race 4 on cotton. Plant Dis. 95: 967-976.
Dara, S. K. 2013. Entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana promotes strawberry plant growth and health. UCCE eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables, 30 September, 2013. (//ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=11624)
Dara, S. K., S.S.R. Dara, and S.S. Dara. 2016. First report of entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana, Isaria fumosorosea, and Metarhizium brunneum promoting the growth and health of cabbage plants growing under water stress. UCCE eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables, 19 September, 2016.
Goettel, M. S., M. Koike, J. J. Ki, D. Aiuchi, R. Shinya, and J. Brodeur. 2008. Potential of Lecanicillium spp. for management of insects, nematodes and plant diseases. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 98: 256-261.
Ownley, B. H., M. R. Griffin, W. E. Klingeman, K. D. Gwinn, J. K. Moulton, and R. M. Pereira. 2008. Beuveria bassiana: endophytic colonization and plant disease control. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 98: 267-270.
Sasan, R. K. and M. J. Bidochka. 2012. The insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii (Clavicipitaceae) is also an endophyte that stimulates plant root development. Amer. J. Bot. 99:101-107.
Sasan, R. K. and M. J. Bidochka. 2013. Antagonism of the endophytic insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii against the bean plant pathogen Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseoli. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 35: 288-293.
Afro-Latino: A deeply rooted identity among U.S. Hispanics
Afro-Latinos are one of these Latino identity groups. They are characterized by their diverse views of racial identity, reflecting the complex and varied nature of race and identity among Latinos. A Pew Research Center survey of Latino adults shows that one-quarter of all U.S. Latinos self-identify as Afro-Latino, Afro-Caribbean or of African descent with roots in Latin America. This is the first time a nationally representative survey in the U.S. has asked the Latino population directly whether they considered themselves Afro-Latino.
In the U.S., Latinos with Caribbean roots are more likely to identify as Afro-Latino or Afro-Caribbean than those with roots elsewhere (34% versus 22%, respectively). Those who identify as Afro-Latino are more concentrated on the East Coast and in the South than other Latinos (65% of Afro-Latinos live in these regions vs. 48% of other Latinos). They are also more likely than other Latinos to be foreign born (70% vs. 52%), less likely to have some college education (24% vs. 37%), and more likely to have lower family incomes. About six-in-ten Afro-Latinos reported family incomes below $30,000 in 2013, compared with about half of those who did not identify as Afro-Latino (62% vs. 47%).
Afro-Latinos' views of race are also unique. When asked directly about their race, only 18% of Afro-Latinos identified their race or one of their races as black. In fact, higher shares of Afro-Latinos identified as white alone or white in combination with another race (39%) or volunteered that their race or one of their races was Hispanic (24%). Only 9% identified as mixed race.
The multiple dimensions of Hispanic identity also reflect the long colonial history of Latin America, during which mixing occurred among indigenous Americans, white Europeans, slaves from Africa and Asians. In Latin America's colonial period, about 15 times as many African slaves were taken to Spanish and Portuguese colonies than to the U.S. Today, about 130 million people of African descent live in Latin America, making up roughly a quarter of the total population, according to estimates from the Project on Ethnicity and Race in Latin America (PERLA) at Princeton University.
Until recently, most Latin American countries did not collect official statistics on ethnicity or race, especially from populations with African origins. However, a recent push for official recognition of minority groups throughout Latin America has resulted in most countries collecting race and ethnicity data on their national censuses.
In 2015, for the first time ever, Mexico allowed people to identify as black or Afro-Mexican through a new question in its mid-decade survey. About 1.4 million Mexicans (or 1.2% of the population) self-identified as black or of African descent based on their culture, history or customs, according to Mexico's chief statistical agency.
Afro-Latinos make up significant shares of the population in some corners of Latin America. In Brazil, about half of the population is of African descent (black or mixed-race black). In the Caribbean, black Cubans make up about a third of that country's population. In the Dominican Republic, black identity is much more complicated. Estimates of Afro-descent in the Dominican Republic range from about a quarter to nearly 90% of the population depending on whether the estimates include those who identify as “indio,” a group that includes many nonwhites and mixed-race individuals with African ancestry.
Source: Pew Research Center, Afro-Latino: A deeply rooted identity among U.S. Hispanics, March 1, 2016.
More Hispanics declaring themselves white
An estimated net 1.2 million Americans of the 35 million Americans identified in 2000 as of “Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin,” as the census form puts it, changed their race from “some other race” to “white” between the 2000 and 2010 censuses, according to research presented at an annual meeting of the Population Association of America and reported by Pew Research.
The researchers, who have not yet published their findings, compared individual census forms from the 2000 and 2010 censuses. They found that millions of Americans answered the census questions about race and ethnicity differently in 2000 and 2010. The largest shifts were among Americans of Hispanic origin, who are the nation's fastest growing ethnic group by total numbers.
Race is an immutable characteristic for many white, black and Asian-Americans. It is less clear for Americans of Hispanic origin. The census form asks two questions about race and ethnicity: one about whether individuals are of Hispanic or Latino origin, and another about race. “Hispanics” do not constitute a race, according to the census, and so 37 percent of Hispanics, presumably dissatisfied with options like “white” or “black,” selected “some other race.”
The researchers found that 2.5 million Americans of Hispanic origin, or approximately 7 percent of the 35 million Americans of Hispanic origin in 2000, changed their race from “some other race” in 2000 to “white” in 2010. An additional 1.3 million people switched in the other direction. A noteworthy but unspecified share of the change came from children who weren't old enough to fill out a form in 2000, but chose for themselves in 2010.
The data provide new evidence consistent with the theory that Hispanics may assimilate as white Americans, like the Italians or Irish, who were not universally considered to be white. It is particularly significant that the shift toward white identification withstood a decade of debate over immigration and the country's exploding Hispanic population, which might have been expected to inculcate or reinforce a sense of Hispanic identity, or draw attention to divisions that remain between Hispanics and non-Hispanic white Americans. Research suggests that Hispanics who have experienced discrimination are less likely to identify as white.
The data also call into question whether America is destined to become a so-called minority-majority nation, where whites represent a minority of the nation's population. Those projections assume that Hispanics aren't white, but if Hispanics ultimately identify as white Americans, then whites will remain the majority for the foreseeable future.
White identification is not necessarily a sign that Hispanics consider themselves white. Many or even most might identify their race as “Hispanic” if it were an explicit option. But white identification may still be an indicator of assimilation. White identifiers are likelier to be second- and third-generation Hispanics than foreign-born and noncitizen Hispanics. They also have higher levels of education and income. The researchers' data did not show the country of origin of the families of those people who shifted their identification.
The results are a strong sign that fears of a unique “Hispanic challenge,” where Hispanics immigrants might remain as a permanent Spanish-speaking underclass, are overblown.
In that regard, the census numbers are not new: There is mounting evidence that Hispanics are succeeding in American society at a pace similar to that of prior waves of European immigrants.
Source: Published originally on the New York Times The Upshot as More Hispanics declaring themselves whitehttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/22/upshot/more-hispanics-declaring-themselves-white.html?_r=0 by Nate Cohn, May 21, 2014.
Hispanics and Blacks more optimistic than Whites
The analysis shows that after years of economic attitudes among whites, blacks and Hispanics following similar patterns, whites' confidence in their economic future has plummeted in the last decade. Blacks and Hispanics, meanwhile, have sustained high levels of optimism despite being hit hard in the recent recession.
The AP-NORC analysis of data from the General Social Survey, a long-running biannual survey conducted by NORC at the University of Chicago, found just 46 percent of whites say their family has a good chance of improving their living standard given the way things are in America, the lowest level in surveys conducted since 1987. In contrast, 73 percent of Hispanics express optimism of an improved life — the biggest gap with whites since the survey began asking.
Blacks and Hispanics diverged sharply from whites on this question following Obama's election as the nation's first black president in 2008. Economic optimism among non-whites rose, while whites' optimism declined.
For the first time since 1972, the share of blacks who reported that their financial situation had improved in the last few years surpassed that of whites. The tip occurred in 2010, when the percentage of whites reporting an improvement to their financial situation fell to 24 percent vs. 30 percent for blacks.
Hispanic optimism about the country's direction also surpassed that of whites after 2008.
The increases in minority optimism come despite any real improvement for blacks and Hispanics relative to whites based on economic measures of unemployment, median income and median net worth. For instance, since 2005, whites as a group lost 15 percent of their net worth, compared with 43 percent for blacks.
Source: Published originally on The Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs Research as Blacks, Hispanics More Optimistic Than Whites by Hope Yen and Jennifer Agiesta, August 1, 2013