- Author: Ben Faber
Many orchards in California are planted on slopes, the most extreme examples are usually avocado orchards with some slopes exceeding 50%. They pose difficulties in harvesting because of the steepness, but also in their irrigation. These slopes can be north/south/east/west facing or all of the quadrants in the same orchard. The plantings can be of varying steepness and at different positions (toe, top, mid-slope). These positions affect solar radiation which is the main driver of evapotranspiration, but also wind interception. South and west facing slopes intercept the most sunlight, while north and east intercept the least. The top of the slope usually intercepts the most sunlight during the day and also the most wind. There can be 100% difference in the amount of ET depending on the position on the slope. That is, some trees require twice as much water as others because they are getting more energy that drives water loss.
When looking at an older avocado grove, the trees are usually larger at the bottom of the slope where there is the least wind and most irrigation water interception. This is where the soil is the deepest and has the greatest moisture reserve. The soils at the top of the slope are the shallowest and get the greatest amount of energy driving water loss. Trees on the north side are often tall from greater soil depth and moisture reserve and less ET demand. As the solar angle changes during the year (lower in the sky during the winter), the proportion of ET in these different positions changes.
Right. OK. We know this. The problem is that many smaller orchards are laid out so that there is one valve controlling the amount of water going to all the different positions. The trees at the bottom of the slopes get the same as those at the top. Those on the north side get the same as those on the south side. This basically sets up an orchard for stress. Stress that leads to disease and impacts on yields and ultimately the longevity of the orchard.
Add to this, irrigation performance varies with pressure and many orchards have very little pressure compensation. Often trees at the top of the slope have the lowest pressure and output. The distribution uniformity is often terrible. Not only are the normal problems of broken and clogged emitters an issue, but also pressure loss from elevation differences.
So where you plant on a hillside should be part of the irrigation design. In different positions on the hillside there are different water requirements and unless they are irrigated differently, there can be major differences in tree response. These different irrigation requirements should be incorporated into the irrigation design by creating as many different irrigation blocks as possible. A valve for the top of the slope, another for the north and south slopes, etc. These can be incorporated easily in the initial design and not so easily customized after the trees have been planted.
At some point, for optimum tree performance, tree health and water use efficiency, growers should recognize the need for irrigating to trees' needs according to slope position. Avocado growers have it harder than most growers.
Read more about an ET study done on a hill:
http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_86_2002/cas_2002_pg_099-104.pdf
- Author: Ben Faber
Drought may not be the right time to be thinking about this, or maybe it is. It concerns managing water and any time a grower uses water more effectively the crop performs better. But fog can be a significant factor in water management.
As fog passes through a tree canopy, it is absorbed by leaves and coats them. Before the tree will transpire water, the water coating must first be evaporated before the tree loses internal water. This water use is not accounted for in a water budget schedule using evapotranspiration based inputs, such as from CIMIS. For deciduous trees, this is often not of concern, because in the winter they don't have leaves and therefore are not transpiring anyway. For evergreen subtropicals like citrus and avocado, this could be an important source of water.
In many situations in the Central Valley and along the coast there can be periods where fog can represent a significant proportion of the water requirement for an orchard. These periods would be for winter tule fog in the Valley and along the coast in the spring and early summer. A recent publication by Rick Snyder at UC Davis has just been released that shows how this fog water can be incorporated into an irrigation schedule. You can see it at the UC's California Institute for Water Resources website: http://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8532.pdf, http://ciwr.ucanr.edu/california_drought_expertise/droughttips/
- Author: Mary Bianchi
Capturing Precipitation - How much rainfall do I need to capture?
Managing precipitation to your advantage is really a three step process (Lal and Stewart, 2012).
ü Step 1 - maximize preciptitation captured in the soil
ü Step 2 - minimize the evaporation of the stored soil moisture
ü Step 3 - maximize plant water use efficiency
The first step of the process is often thought of as “effective rain”. Effective rainfall refers to the percentage of rainfall which becomes available to plants and crops. It considers “losses” due to runoff, evaporation and deep percolation (Klein, 2011). In the past we might have considered deep percolation as a loss. We now know that percolation “losses” may be a vital resource in sustaining our groundwater basins. As we move into the fall of 2015, we have the opportunity to plan for effective rainfall by managing the orchard floor for maximum capture of precipitation. This will help provide stored soil moisture for plant growth as well as deep percolation of water to groundwater
The following figure illustrates some of the important points about effective rainfall and reminds us of what we can do to maximize capture of precipitation (1). We want to maximize 2 (infiltration during a rain event), 3 (surface capture), 6 (infiltration from surface capture), 7 (percolation to ground water), and 8 (rootzone storage for use by the crop). We want to minimize 4 (runoff) and 5 (evaporation).
When rain water ((1) falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the soil (2), some stagnates on the surface (3), while some flows over the surface as runoff (4). When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface (3) evaporates to the atmosphere (5), while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil (6). From all the water that infiltrates into the soil ((2) and (6)), some percolates below the rootzone (7), while the rest remains stored in the rootzone (8). From FAO Irrigation Water Management 1985 http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e05.htm#4.1.4 effective rainfall
Larry Stein from Texas A&M wrote a very good basic explanation “So What Constitutes an Effective Rain Event ?” (Stein, 2011) We can use his approach to look at managing precipitation in the Central Coast. Understanding these concepts can help you manage precipitation in your operation.
For example, the majority of olive roots are in the top 18 inches of soil. So how much rainfall do we need to capture to refill the rootzone of an olive grove in Paso Robles? We need to know:
ü The amount and intensity of rainfall
ü The infiltration rate of the soil (how fast the soil takes in water). Sandy soils take water in more quickly.
ü How much water the soil will hold in the rootzone of the grove
Average rainfall for Paso Robles in January is about 2.75 inches. Table 1 shows that olives on a sandy loam soil might be able to infiltrate 1 to 1.5 inches per hour. If all that rain comes in one storm then as much as 1.25 inches may either run off (4) or pond (3) in the low spots until it can infiltrate.
Average rainfall in Paso Robles in January would be adequate to refill the rootzone of olives (8) on a sandy loam soil, IF all of the rainfall infiltrates (2), and none is lost to evaporation (5) or runoff (4).
Table 1. General soil water storage and depletion characteristics for three different soil types (Klein, 2011)
|
Soil Texture |
||
|
Sands |
Loams |
Clays |
Water infiltration rate (inches / hour) |
2.0 – 6.0 |
0.6 – 2.0 |
0.2 – 0.6 |
Available water (inches / foot) |
1.0 – 1.5 |
1.5 – 2.5 |
2.5 – 4.0 |
Days to depletion when ET – 0.2 inches / day |
5 – 7.5 |
7.5 – 12.5 |
12.5 – 20.0 |
Amount of water to wet to 18 inches in a dry soil (inches) |
1.5 |
2.25 – 3.0 |
3.75 |
Cover crops help keep the soil surface from crusting as well as protecting the soil surface from erosion. Their roots provide channels for water to infiltrate into the soil. Remember that cover crops may also be using water stored in the rootzone (8). When facing drought conditions, it may be advantageous to manage with low residue cover crops to reduce the amount of water extracted from the rootzone. Here's a link to a video on low residue cover crops and their impact on runoff from work by UC Cooperative Extension Advisors in Monterey County https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0oVVJ_BA7s
Klein, L. 2011. So What Constitutes an Effective Rain Event? http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/earthkind/drought/drought-management-for-commercial-horticulture/so-what-constitutes-an-effective-rain-event/ .
Lal. R.and, B.A. Stewart. 2012. Soil Water and Agronomic Productivity
/h3>- Author: Mark Battany
Efficient and precise irrigation management is becoming increasingly important inCaliforniaagriculture, both for maximizing crop quality and for conserving water. The most advanced irrigation scheduling strategy is based on local measurements of reference evapotranspiration (ETo), which is converted to crop evapotranspiration (ETc) with an appropriate crop coefficient (kc).
To be able to use this method, an irrigation manager needs to have locally accurate ETo values throughout the growing season. However, the highly variable microclimates that characterize many farming areas often make it difficult to use data from distant weather stations; therefore an accurate local measurement may often be preferable to relying on a regional value.
One inexpensive option for measuring ETo locally is to use a simple atmometer (Fig. 1). Atmometers are water-filled devices, in which the actual evaporation of water is measured over time. In their simplest form, the atmometer is outfitted with a graduated sight glass on the water supply tank which allows the user to easily measure the evaporation that occurred over a given period. In practice, this type of atmometer is most suited for making readings at multiple day intervals, for example once per week, or on days when irrigation is applied.
The performance of atmometers versus more expensive weather stations was evaluated on theCentralCoastin 2003. In this study, atmometers were placed adjacent to seven weather stations throughout the area, and weekly values for both methods were compared (Fig. 2). The results indicate that the atmometers and weather stations have very comparable ETo readings, with the atmometers indicating somewhat lower ETo values under conditions of lower evapotranspiration.
Like any technique, using atmometers has advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include their very low cost and ease of operation, with no computer or power required. Disadvantages include the potential for damage by freezing weather, the need to refill the water supply (every three to six weeks), and the need to read the gauge manually. Also, if they are installed in a large open area, birds may tend to perch on the evaporating surface and foul it with their droppings; for this reason several wires are installed on top of the device to
discourage birds from perching there. In general, atmometers function quite reliably with few problems.
Converting atmometer ETo readings to the amount of irrigation run time required to replenish the soil moisture lost to evapotranspiration is fairly straightforward. A relatively simple example for a sprinkler-irrigated field is presented below in Table 1.
Table 1. Example conversion of ETo to irrigation run times for a sprinkler irrigated field |
||
|
|
|
A. Measured atmometer ETo for one week |
2 |
inches |
B. Crop coefficient (kc) |
0.8 |
|
C. Calculated ETc for the week (=AxB) |
1.6 |
inches |
D. Sprinkler application rate |
0.13 |
in/hr |
E. Hours of irrigation required (=C/D) |
12.3 |
hours |
(Note: To convert Gallons to Inches: Gallons ÷ Area (square feet) ÷ 0.6234 = Inches
To convert Inches to Gallons: Inches * Area (square feet) ÷ 1.604 = Gallons)
Atmometer installed on a fence post
atmometer
atmometer ET
- Author: Gary Bender
Quite frankly, in a county where water is costing $700 to $1000 per acre foot, we though this practice would have been a common practice. Added to this is the increasing pressure to reduce nitrate leaching into creeks and ground water, where there is a serious problem developing. The natural response when water prices are high is to reduce water use, but we have seen groves where even a 10% reduction in water reduces the yield by 50%, and we have also seen quite a few growers irrigating too much with the belief that a couple of extra feet of water per acre will more than pay the cost of water in increased yield. Clearly we need to apply enough water to make the trees produce a profitable yield, How does a farmer accomplish this?
I believe every grower should be using tensiometers or some other kind of soil moisture monitoring equipment to determine when to water, and using CIMIS to determine how much to water. There, just simply, is no an easier, or a better method.
Some growers said that tensiometers don’t work. Well, they work just fine if they are installed correctly and serviced periodically. If the soil gets too dry (the reading goes above 80 cb) the device breaks suction from the soil, and they don’t work until they are removed, filled, pumped and re-installed. As for gypsum blocks, they work just fine also, but are not very accurate under wet conditions. Both work a lot better than just guessing. There are newer electronic devices that work very well if calibrated with the soil moisture, but they don’t work very well in rocky soil (rocks don’t hold water).
Using CIMIS
This assignment is to help you figure out the water use in your grove. The following is a step by step procedure that is not difficult. Several of our grove managers use this on a weekly basis to calculate the water requirement in each of their groves. We have one grower who has this task assigned to his child in the third grade…Really, this is not that difficult!
This assignment will demonstrate how to use CIMIS to calculate the irrigation requirement for an avocado grove in Escondido. ETo is called the reference evapotranspiration (defined as the water use for eight inch tall grass), and all crops in California are related to this water use by adjusting ETo with a “crop coefficient”. In this example you will see that the crop coefficient for avocado in November is 0.55. ETo data is gathered from the automated weather stations that are part of the CIMIS network in California. The irrigation calculator you will be using multiplies the ETo number by the crop coefficient and gives you Etc, the water use by the crop in question. This comes from the station in “inches” of water loss, and the calculator changes this into gallons per tree per day. The calculator then tells you how much water to apply to the avocados to replace the water they used during the last seven days.
Go the website www.avocado.org
Click on California Industry (on the top right side of the page)
Click on Growers
Click on Water
Click on Irrigation Calculator
Start with Evapotranspiration (ETo).
Click on Go To CIMIS
Use the drop down box and Click on San Diego
Click on Submit
Choose Escondido
Click on Daily Data
- “Select a Time Period”, in this example we will select the previous week; select November 15 through November 21
- In “Select Variables”, leave everything selected with the green checkmark.
- Leave “English Units” selected.
- Click “Retrieve Data”
Write down ETo for the last week. In this case it will be: 0.12, 0.11, 0.11, 0.10, 0.12, 0.12 and 0.10.
Add these up, and you get 0.78 (this is your ETo for the past week). Minimize this window.
You are now back to the Irrigation Calculator on the Avocado website.
- Evapotranspiration, delete the 0.22 and fill in your 0.78
- Under “Crop Coefficient”, just click on November in the drop down box.
- Leave “Distribution Uniformity” at 0.85.
- Leave trees at 109 per acre.
- Leave sprinkler output at 17 gal/hr. (of course, you can change this to match your sprinkler output, but for the sake of this example, leave this at 17).
- Click on Calculate.
You should get 138 gallons (this is the amount of water used by one tree in the last seven days) and a watering run time of 8 hrs and 8 minutes.
As I mentioned earlier, you should have tensiometers (soil moisture meters) set at the 8 inch depth (avocado) or 12 inch depth (citrus) to tell you “when” to water. In avocados, I like to irrigate when the shallow tensiometer reads 20-25 cb, and in citrus when the tensiometer reads 35 – 40 cb. You cannot rely on irrigating every seven days because the tensiometer may tell you the soil is getting dry by the fourth day. This often happens in the summer.
To review, CIMIS tells you how much to water, the tensiometer tells you when to water. Now, in actual use, you may find that, in a windy area or on the south side of a slope, your trees may need more water. Merely add a 10% increase to the run time, and keep making minor adjustments until you get this right for your grove. Or, if you have root rot, you may want to water 10% to 30% less water.
By the way, if you are using this calculator for citrus, merely put 0.65 into the crop coefficient for each month, and you can use the same calculator. Some people believe the crop coefficient in the avocado calculator might be too low. Both Ben Faber and I believe the coefficient should be 0.80, but we don’t exactly have good data to support this…just experience. At any rate, the calculator will put you in the ballpark…and it is a lot better than “guessing”.
Give this a try, and Good Luck!
Irrigation Calculator developed by Reuben Hofshi, Shanti Hofshi and Ben Faber.